Unit 2 Sociological Thinkers – Classical and Contemporary
Karl Marx’s overall approach gives primary importance to
A Cultural beliefs and rituals
B Economic structure and production relations
C Biological differences among individuals
D Geographical features of a region
Marx’s central idea is that material/economic conditions—how production is organised and who owns resources—shape all other aspects of society.
In Historical Materialism, the “base” of society refers mainly to
A Religion and culture
B Language and literature
C Economic forces and relations of production
D Military organisations
The base consists of the forces of production (tools, labour, technology) and relations of production (owners and workers), which influence the superstructure.
According to Historical Materialism, which sequence correctly represents stages of social development
A Primitive → Feudal → Slave → Capitalist → Socialist
B Primitive → Slave → Feudal → Capitalist → Socialist/Communist
C Feudal → Primitive → Capitalist → Slave → Socialist
D Slave → Primitive → Capitalist → Feudal → Socialist
Marx outlined a broad historical progression based on changing modes of production leading towards a future socialist/communist society.
In Marx’s view, the superstructure includes
A Only machines and tools
B Laws, state, religion, and culture
C Only natural environment
D Only the working class
The superstructure is made up of political, legal, and cultural institutions which are shaped by the economic base.
In capitalist society, the bourgeoisie are best described as
A Landless peasants who migrate to cities
B Skilled artisans working from home
C Owners of factories, capital, and means of production
D Government bureaucrats
The bourgeoisie control the means of production and employ workers, forming the dominant class in capitalism.
Marx’s idea of class conflict mainly focuses on the struggle between
A Peasants and kings
B Bourgeoisie and proletariat
C Priests and soldiers
D Traders and rulers
In capitalism, the exploited workers (proletariat) and exploiting owners (bourgeoisie) have opposing interests, leading to class conflict.
Alienation from the product of labour means that workers
A Spend too much time creating art
B Own and sell their own products freely
C Do not own or control what they produce
D Refuse to work with modern machines
Under capitalism, the product belongs to the capitalist; workers are separated from the outcomes of their own labour, causing alienation.
Which dimension of alienation refers to workers being unable to use creativity in their work
A Alienation from other workers
B Alienation from the labour process
C Alienation from the product
D Alienation from nature
When work becomes repetitive and controlled by management, workers cannot freely shape the labour process, leading to alienation.
In the Theory of Surplus Value, “surplus value” represents
A Extra savings of the workers
B Government subsidies to industries
C Difference between value produced by workers and wages paid to them
D Interest paid on bank loans
Marx argued that capitalists profit by paying workers less than the value they create; this difference is surplus value.
According to Marx, class consciousness among workers develops when they
A Compete against one another for promotions
B Accept existing inequalities as natural
C Become aware of their common exploitation and shared interests
D Focus only on individual success
Class consciousness means recognising shared conditions and interests, which can lead to collective action and revolutionary change.
Durkheim’s main concern in his work was to understand
A Biological evolution of humans
B Stability, order, and cohesion in society
C Only individual mental problems
D Climate change and environment
Durkheim focused on how societies maintain social order and integration, making sociology a science of social facts.
Mechanical solidarity is most characteristic of
A Large, complex, industrial cities
B Modern bureaucratic states
C Small, traditional societies with similar lifestyles
D Postmodern information societies
Mechanical solidarity arises where people share similar work, beliefs, and experiences, producing strong collective conscience.
In organic solidarity, social cohesion is based mainly on
A Shared religion and kinship
B Fear of punishment
C Mutual interdependence due to specialised roles
D Military power alone
In modern societies, people perform specialised tasks and rely on each other for different needs, creating organic solidarity.
Durkheim used the term “anomie” to describe a situation of
A Strong religious faith
B Excessive political control
C Normlessness and lack of clear rules
D Complete social harmony
Anomie occurs when rapid change disrupts norms, leaving individuals unclear about expectations and values.
Social facts, according to Durkheim, are
A Personal opinions of individuals
B External, coercive social forces shared by the group
C Biological instincts
D Private dreams and fantasies
Social facts exist outside the individual, exert pressure, and are common to the collective, like laws, customs, and morality.
Which characteristic does NOT describe social facts
A External to individuals
B Coercive in nature
C Totally unique to one person only
D General and collective
Social facts are collective, not individual; they belong to groups and societies.
Egoistic suicide, in Durkheim’s analysis, is linked to
A Excessive regulation and strict control
B Weak social ties and low integration
C Strong group loyalty and sacrifice
D Times of sudden economic change
When individuals are poorly integrated into society, they may feel isolated, leading to egoistic suicide.
Altruistic suicide occurs when
A People feel too free from social rules
B Individuals are excessively integrated and die for group goals
C Economic crises create uncertainty
D Individuals reject all forms of authority
In altruistic suicide, individuals sacrifice themselves for the group, such as soldiers dying for their country.
Durkheim’s concept of “sacred and profane” is related to his study of
A Politics
B Economy
C Religion
D Technology
In The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, Durkheim argued that all religions distinguish between sacred (holy) and profane (ordinary).
“Collective effervescence” for Durkheim refers to
A Individual depression in isolation
B Sudden economic downturn
C Shared emotional energy during rituals and gatherings
D Scientific discovery in laboratories
Festivals and rituals generate intense group excitement, strengthening social bonds and collective identity.
Weber defined social action as behaviour that
A Is entirely instinctive and automatic
B Ignores the presence of others
C Takes account of others and is full of meaning for the actor
D Occurs only in large crowds
Social action involves meaningful orientation to others’ behaviour, unlike purely biological or accidental acts.
Which type of social action is guided by careful calculation of means and ends
A Affective action
B Traditional action
C Instrumental-rational action
D Value-rational action
Instrumental-rational action involves logical planning to achieve specific goals efficiently.
Donating to charity purely because one believes it is morally right illustrates
A Instrumental-rational action
B Value-rational action
C Traditional action
D Affective action
Value-rational action is motivated by commitment to values or ethics rather than material gain.
Weber’s study “The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism” mainly shows that
A Religion and economy are always independent
B Religious ideas can influence economic behaviour
C Economic factors create religion
D Politics controls all religious beliefs
Weber argued that certain Protestant beliefs supported disciplined work and saving, helping capitalism grow.
The “spirit of capitalism” in Weber’s analysis emphasises
A Carefree spending and luxury
B Hard work, discipline, and rational planning
C Refusal to save or invest
D Avoidance of all economic activity
Weber described a mindset that favours systematic work, saving, and reinvestment as the spirit of capitalism.
A key feature of bureaucracy, according to Weber, is
A Absence of written rules
B Recruitment based on family ties
C Clear hierarchy and division of labour
D Total dependence on emotions
Bureaucracy is characterised by formal hierarchy, specialised roles, and rule-based functioning.
Weber’s idea of the “iron cage” warns about
A Excessive military power
B Being trapped in irrational traditions
C Individuals being confined by over-rational, rule-bound systems
D Lack of religious faith
The iron cage describes how bureaucratic rationality can limit freedom, creativity, and spontaneity.
Power, in Weber’s sense, is best defined as the ability to
A Control only one’s own actions
B Make others do something even against their will
C Obey everyone in authority
D Avoid all social relations
Power is the capacity to impose one’s will despite resistance, while authority is power seen as legitimate.
Traditional authority is based mainly on
A Legal rules written in constitutions
B Extraordinary personal charisma
C Customs, traditions, and inherited status
D Random selection by lottery
Traditional authority rests on long-standing customs and beliefs, as in monarchies or tribal leadership.
Legal-rational authority is most clearly seen in
A A tribal chief chosen by elders
B A monarch ruling by divine right
C A modern elected government working under a constitution
D A revolutionary hero obeyed for personal charm
Legal-rational authority depends on formal rules and laws rather than personal status or tradition.
Talcott Parsons is most closely associated with
A Conflict theory
B Symbolic interactionism
C Structural-functionalism
D Ethnomethodology
Parsons developed a comprehensive functionalist framework viewing society as an interrelated system.
In Parsons’ idea of the social system, institutions like family, economy, and education
A Operate in isolation from each other
B Are disconnected from shared values
C Are interconnected parts that perform roles for stability
D Exist only for entertainment
The social system is made up of interdependent institutions that contribute to social order.
According to Parsons, socialisation is crucial because it
A Encourages people to reject social norms
B Teaches values and roles necessary for system survival
C Eliminates all forms of individuality
D Only prepares people for political office
Socialisation transmits norms and values so individuals can perform their roles and maintain social stability.
In Parsons’ action system, the cultural system primarily provides
A Physical energy for labour
B Legal punishments
C Values, beliefs, and meanings that guide actions
D Biological instincts
The cultural system shapes the symbolic and value framework within which action takes place.
Within the action system, the personality system refers to
A Institutions like government
B Shared values of society
C Individual motives, emotions, and personal traits
D Only physical needs
The personality system represents the subjective side of actors, influencing how they respond to roles and norms.
In the AGIL model, the function “A – Adaptation” mainly refers to
A Setting and attaining goals
B Maintaining shared values
C Securing resources and adjusting to the environment
D Creating religious rituals
Adaptation involves how a system manages resources and responds to external conditions.
In AGIL, the function “G – Goal Attainment” is most clearly performed by
A Economic sub-system alone
B Political institutions that set and pursue collective goals
C Religious organisations
D Family relationships
Goal attainment is largely handled by political structures that define and achieve societal objectives.
The pattern variable “Ascription vs. Achievement” contrasts
A Emotional vs. unemotional behaviour
B Group vs. individual interest
C Status based on birth vs. status based on performance
D Personal vs. legal rules
Ascription gives roles by birth qualities; achievement assigns positions based on accomplishments.
Treating everyone according to the same law, regardless of personal relationship, reflects
A Particularism
B Universalism
C Affectivity
D Diffuseness
Universalism applies general rules equally, without favouring specific individuals.
Behaviour guided mainly by emotions and personal feelings rather than rules shows
A Affectivity
B Affective neutrality
C Specificity
D Collectivity-orientation
Affectivity represents emotionally driven action, common in intimate relationships like family.
Merton’s idea of “middle-range theories” was meant to
A Abandon theory completely
B Replace all research with philosophy
C Connect broad theory with specific testable research
D Study only ancient societies
Middle-range theories lie between grand theory and narrow facts, allowing empirical testing of meaningful concepts.
Which of the following is closest to a middle-range theory
A A theory explaining the entire history of humanity
B A small anecdote about one person
C A theory of deviance that can be tested with crime data
D A myth about gods
Middle-range theories focus on specific social phenomena that can be systematically investigated.
In Merton’s Strain Theory, “strain” arises when
A There are no cultural goals in society
B People easily achieve goals through approved means
C There is a gap between cultural goals and available legitimate means
D Everyone rejects all goals and means
When people cannot reach socially valued goals using approved means, they experience strain that may lead to deviance.
An individual who accepts cultural goals of success but uses illegal methods (like fraud) to achieve them shows which adaptation
A Conformity
B Ritualism
C Innovation
D Retreatism
Innovators accept goals but reject legitimate means, turning to deviant or illegal paths.
A person who strictly follows rules but no longer believes in or pursues success goals represents
A Ritualism
B Conformity
C Rebellion
D Innovation
Ritualists abandon goals but continue to obey norms and routines mechanically.
“Retreatism” in Merton’s Strain Theory is best illustrated when people
A Work harder to achieve goals
B Reject both societal goals and means and withdraw from society
C Try to create a new social system
D Follow all rules loyally
Retreatists drop out of the mainstream, as seen among chronic addicts or vagrants.
When people reject existing goals and means and try to replace them with new ones, Merton calls this
A Conformity
B Innovation
C Rebellion
D Ritualism
Rebels seek to transform the system itself by promoting alternative values and structures.
A manifest function of the education system is
A Helping students find marriage partners
B Providing entertainment shows
C Supplying knowledge and skills to learners
D Encouraging illegal activities
Manifest functions are intended and recognised; schools are explicitly meant to educate.
A latent function of schooling would include
A Teaching basic literacy
B Issuing official degrees
C Creating peer groups and friendships
D Setting formal curriculum
Latent functions are unintended outcomes, such as forming social networks among students.
Merton’s distinction between manifest and latent functions helps sociologists to
A Ignore the hidden effects of institutions
B See that actions often have both intended and unintended consequences
C Focus only on political systems
D Deny that functions exist
The concept encourages analysis of both obvious and hidden roles of social practices.
Mead and Cooley both argued that the self
A Is fixed at birth and purely biological
B Develops through social interaction and communication
C Has no relation to society
D Is determined only by genetics
For both thinkers, identity emerges from social experiences, not in isolation.
In Mead’s theory, the “I” represents
A The purely biological body
B The socialised, rule-following part of self
C The spontaneous, creative, and personal aspect of self
D The legal identity only
The “I” is the active, unpredictable element that responds to the “Me” and social expectations.
Mead’s “Me” is best described as
A Completely unconscious desires
B Internalised attitudes and expectations of society
C Pure emotion without thought
D The physical body only
The “Me” reflects how we think others see us and the roles we are supposed to perform.
The “generalized other” in Mead’s theory refers to
A Any unknown person
B One specific friend
C The wider community’s expectations as a whole
D Only parents’ views
When individuals take the role of the generalized other, they understand broad social norms, not just one person’s opinion.
Cooley’s concept of the “looking glass self” suggests that we
A See ourselves only through our own thoughts
B Form self-image based on how we imagine others view and judge us
C Never care about others’ opinions
D Depend only on religious beliefs for identity
The self grows like a mirror reflection, shaped by imagined feedback from others.
Which of the following is NOT one of the three elements of the looking glass self
A Imagining how we appear to others
B Imagining how others judge that appearance
C Developing self-feelings based on imagined judgments
D Measuring our intelligence using scientific tests
Cooley’s three steps involve appearance, judgment, and emotional response, not formal testing.
Feeling proud because you believe others see you as hardworking is an example of
A Generalized other
B Iron cage
C Looking glass self
D Anomie
You are responding emotionally to your imagined image in others’ minds, which is central to the looking glass self.
According to Mead and Cooley, understanding self and identity is important because it
A Explains how people disappear from society
B Helps explain behaviour, role performance, and adjustment to society
C Replaces the need to study institutions
D Eliminates the need for socialisation
The self, shaped socially, influences how people act and occupy social roles.
A child learning to play team games by understanding rules and roles of all players demonstrates
A Egoistic suicide
B Division of labour
C Taking the role of the generalized other
D Innovation
The child must understand others’ expectations and adjust behaviour accordingly, as Mead described.
Cooley’s theory helps us understand why
A People never change their behaviour
B Social approval or criticism affects confidence and self-esteem
C Identity is purely biological
D Deviance is always genetic
Because we internalise imagined judgments, positive or negative feedback shapes our feelings about ourselves.
Harold Garfinkel is best known as the founder of
A Structural-functionalism
B Conflict theory
C Ethnomethodology
D Positivism
Garfinkel developed ethnomethodology to study everyday methods people use to construct social order.
The term “ethnomethodology” literally refers to the
A Study of government institutions
B Study of scientific experiments
C Study of ordinary people’s methods of making sense of social reality